The Neuroevolution of Motivation

Motivational concepts have been central to systematic psychological, behavioral, and social psychological theories over the past century (Berridge, 2004; Cofer & Appley, 1964; Higgins, 1997). Motivational theories have been highly diverse in their nature and focus, but for the most part they have been developed largely from psychological or behavioral data and concepts. This is true even for homeostatic motives, such as hunger and thirst, which have reasonably well-documented neural substrates. Although this single-level approach to theory building is perfectly appropriate, the question arises as to whether a multilevel, interdisciplinary approach to neurobehavioral organization may offer meaningful insights into, or constraints on, motivational concepts and theories (Berntson & Cacioppo, 2004; Cacioppo & Berntson, 1992). The present chapter considers some aspects of evolutionary neurodevelopment and neuraxial organization that offer a beginning framework for integrative neurobehavioral and neuropsychological models of motivation. We then consider the implications of this general approach for understanding social processes and behavior.